Operant Conditioning

Introduction Skinner brought about the concept of operant conditioning to elaborate the influence of the environment in determining an individual’s behavior. Skinner asserts that a particular behavior is a product of the expected consequence. Most of the time the behavior is a voluntary one but in some instances, operant conditioning can be used to modify involuntary behavior.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Operant Conditioning specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Positive Reinforcement In the context of drivers slowing down once they see a police vehicle doing radar in their vicinity to avoid a speeding ticket, Skinners principle of operant conditioning applies. In this scenario, the police car acts as a positive reinforcement to the behavior of driving within the speed limit. Every time the speeding drivers see a police car they are forced to reduce their speed so as to avoid getting a speeding ticket. The police car doing radar ahead is the condition that acts in modifying the voluntary behavior of reducing the speed limit by the drivers. Every time the drivers come in the vicinity of a police car doing radar, their behavior is influenced and as such reduces their speed to avoid a speeding ticket. The overall reward comes in when the driver’s license is due and they are not required to undertake a driving test due to having received a speeding ticket. This reward reinforces good behavior among drivers and as such they will always drive within the speed limit to avoid a speeding ticket. The police in this case act as the positive reinforcement. Positive Punishment The issuance of a speeding ticket to those drivers found driving above the speeding limit acts as a positive punisher to reduce the tendency of drivers over speeding. According to Skinner’s principle of operant conditioning, positive punishment decreases the performance of an undesired behavior. Every time an unwanted behavior occurs, one receives a punishment and as such the punishment deters a repeat of the same behavior (Coon and Mitterer 234). In this scenario, once a driver receives a speeding ticket (positive punisher), he/she will be reluctant to drive over the speed limit (condition). The act of slowing down in the presence of a police car doing radar reduces the anticipated punishment and encourages driving within the speed limit.Advertising Looking for report on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Negative reinforcement Negative reinforcement is observed when an unpleasant condition is abolished or extinguished so as to augment the occurrence of a particular desired behavior. In this context, whenever there is no police car doing radar in the vicinity, there is an increased chance that the drivers will drive above the speeding limit. The absence of the police car is the negative reinforce for driving above the spe ed limit. In addition, the drivers will not be afraid of receiving any speeding ticket since the police will not be around to issue them. The absence of the police car will reinforce the behavior of driving above the speed limit. Negative Punishment Negative punishment is a concept of operant conditioning brought about by Skinner to explain the reduction in particular behaviors as a result of removal or denial of a particular condition. In this context, the withdrawal of ones driving license by the police and being banned to drive acts as a negative punishment to deter drivers from driving above the speed limit. Work Cited Coon, Dennis, and Mitterer, John. Psychology: A Journey. Stamford: Cengage Learning, 2010. This report on Operant Conditioning was written and submitted by user Lexi House to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here. Operant Conditioning

Fed Action Essays

Fed Action Essays Fed Action Essay Fed Action Essay Name: Course: Lecturer: Date: : Fed Action The decision by the fed to purchase agency mortgage-based securities at $40 billion each month is intended to spur economic growth by increasing the rates of employment, and by reducing the interest rates. The fed will only review its decision once it sees signs of economic growth. Central banks use interest rates as a way of regulating the economy. The interest rates affect the rates of mortgages that people have to pay, and it determines the rates at which people borrow money. High interest rates discourage borrowing since it means that people have to pay more for the loans they have taken. On the other hand, low interest rates encourage borrowing and increase spending. The government’s decision means that it has to print more money to buy the bonds. By increasing borrowing, the government hopes that it will increase spending, and that this will in turn increase hiring opportunities, as people take more loans to create businesses. Although low interest rates are an incentive for people to borrow money, other factors affect contribute to this decision, including increase in wages and the current economic situation. Fed’s decision will ultimately decrease the interest rates, but it is doubtful whether this decrease will lead to economic growth. Banks will be more willing to increase their lending rates since they are assured of more money in their accounts (Hilsenrath and Peterson). Some people argue that quantitative easing by the government will only benefit a few individuals. They argue that people do not borrow because of low interest rates, but that their decision to borrow stems from the fact that they see an opportunity of doing so. Therefore, for many individuals, interest rates are not an incentive for borrowing. The only thing that will compel them to borrow is if they experience an increase in real wages, which will give them more confidence that they can pay their loans. Many people are paying off debts, which they have held for a long time. Many of them will not consider borrowing as a wise move, seeing that they are facing financial crisis. In addition, some people have lost their jobs, and borrowing money is not the first thing that they will consider. Some people would consider borrowing money in an economy that supports job creation, and in a stable economy. However, they are afraid of borrowing if they think that the economy will not help them support and sustain their businesses. The low interest on mortgages will only help the housing and construction industry. While low interests on mortgages make home ownership cheaper, other factors contribute towards making the decision to purchase homes. The economy cannot grow while depending on a single sector. The fed’s decision will only benefit the housing and construction industry. Several people will benefit if the housing sector improves since they will get jobs. This will also improve and enhance job creation in other related industries. However, these jobs are not a true reflection of the country’s economy, since they will not translate to an increase in jobs in other sectors. The decrease in interest rates might discourage some investors. The investors will feel that they are not getting real value for their money, and they will be reluctant to invest in the country. This will decrease the chances of the country getting more jobs. Moreover, some investors can decide to pull out of the country, and they can decide to set their jobs elsewhere, where they are guaranteed returns. This decision will mean that some companies will relocate to overseas, and this will lead to job losses. : Hilsenrath, Jon and Kristina, Peterson. Fed Acts to Fix Job Markets. Wall Street Journal. 2012. Web. 18 October, 2012

Human Agency Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Human Agency - Essay Example As the paper declares with regard to religion, resistance is seen in the manner that the natives secretly preserved their old religion, while at the same time adopting Christian symbols. While the arrival of Franciscan Friars brought with them the goal of converting natives into Christianity, this goal was did not materialize in the manner that the friars predicted, such that conversion was only minimal. What resulted instead was a Mayan version of Christianity where natives held the belief that Jesus, with his Mayan lords will return to the region to cleanse it with foreign influence This essay stresses that Clendinnen frequently referred to a â€Å"confusion of tongues† which prevailed since the onset of the two cultures’ first encounter wherein a â€Å"strong evidence of...riddling messages, and deliberate and conscious endeavors to sustain their own accounts of things† was deliberately carried out by the natives to keep Spanish comprehension of their â€Å"complex web of understanding† limited. Communication not only became a problem for the Spaniards; but they also had a limited understanding of Mayan warfare. the use of torture by the friars in forcing the conversion of the natives also lead to an economic resistance, where oppressed natives sought refuge from the encomenderos, who were themselves rivals of the friars. Placing the natives in a position where they can, at least potentially, threaten the stability of the economic system imposed by the Spaniards.

Economics for managers Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Economics for managers - Essay Example 246). This is the reason why the national governments of most of the nations attempt to enhance the GDP level of their respective economies. Some of the reasons why GDP of any nation could not be used to evaluate the standard of living prevailing in a nation and hence, its well-being, have been depicted underneath. Firstly, GDP takes no account of the distribution of wealth or income among the residents of a given nation and thus, does not portray a true account of the standard of living among various strata of the society. One appropriate example of a lack of discreteness of GDP, in measuring the well being of any nation could be derived from the terrorist attacks in USA in 2001. The attacks left the nation distraught and its citizens at a worse-off state. Many people lost their lives and among those who lived, many lost their jobs. Yet, the GDP of the nation was hiked primarily due to the fact that the statistic included the sums injected in the economy in the form of aids and fund reliefs (Baumol & Blinder, 2009, p. 474). Furthermore, the instance with that of the developing nations or rather the ones passing through the transition phase often record very high GDP values which does not go with the actual living standards prevailing in these nations. China and India are regarded to be the fastest developing nations in the world. These nations record one of the fastest economic growth rates even though the degree of well being in both of them are quite low with only a handful of the population base experiencing a betterment in their living standards. The primary reason behind this is the huge population bases in both the nations, which respectively are regarded as the ones endowed with the largest and second-largest populations in the world. A lion’s share of the population bases in both these nations live in utter poverty with dwindling resources. Though both these nations are associated with an economic growth rate of about 8 percent and more, the Gin i coefficient in these nations are evident of the deteriorating living standards. While it is 33 for India that for China as measured in the year 2006 was, 44.7 (Gehring & Kulkarni, 2006, p. 12). Hence, though China is slightly better off than India, none could be regarded in a highly good social condition. But income inequality and prevalence of poverty in a nation are not the only factors which indicate towards a nation’s standard of living. There are certain other aspects such as environmental concerns which are equally essential in evaluating the same. Secondly, GDP does not deduct the used up values from its account which is why it gives a wrong impression about the true economic picture in a nation. It includes the values depreciated through usage of capital, natural resources depleted on account of deforestation or excessive deployment, reduction in mineral and fuel resource endowments, as well as loss of fertilisation of land. Thirdly, the extent of environmental poll ution and degradation in a nation often hampers a variety of production processes in an economy which is why it is often counted as a drawback

Writer's option Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Writer's option - Research Paper Example Smith clarified the way competition enhances the productivity and social wellbeing by promising ideal distribution of resources and labour in the overall economy. Yet, as a pragmatist, Smith had also identified that capitalism will corrupt the competitive markets. He had also realised that in capitalist economy, certain individuals would turn out to be much wealthier and rich in comparison with others. On the assumption that there will be economic growth, the wealthy would become wealthier, however, the poor would also be more affluent. Adam Smith put substantial level of effort for establishing the theory of capitalism and how it would determine competitive markets. Even after his death, the ideas provided by Adam Smith remained significant in the fields of economy (Yardeni & Moss, 1990). Focusing on this aspect, the study examines Adam Smith’s explanation of competitive market. The study also delineates the way in which Adam Smith has viewed the present competitive markets and the manner in which these markets work. In relation to this, the study defines how the rule of exchange works in a competitive market for determining the prices. Capitalism is an economic structure which protects private property and allows free trade in the competitive markets. In capitalism system, individuals are allowed to follow self-interests as long as these interests are controlled by competition and society obtains advantages from lower expenses and increased choices. However, the problem related to capitalism is that self-interest has a natural tendency for collusion and corruption. In other words, capitalists tend to pursue power and to exploit it in order to rigout the market in their favour at the cost of economic disadvantage (Yardeni & Moss, 1990). Adam Smith often cited capitalism as a supporter of free market which signifies deregulation. A deregulated market where government has low

The Globalization And Localization Factors That Affect Next Marketing Essay

The Globalization And Localization Factors That Affect Next Marketing Essay In todays world international business have become easier because of the globalization. International business now has grown over the years because of the benefits it has offered to the world. In this report I will be focussing on the International strategies of the brand NEXT which has business. Next is one of the main fashion labels s and it is certainly one of the biggest Multi-national these days. This report will also focus on micro and macro factors that affect the company. Then I will be considering the globalization and localization factors that affect NEXT. Key environmental variables and core competence with relation to its international strategy. In the end recommendations would be made for the development of the companys international operations. Next was established in 1864 in Leeds as J Hepworth Son, Gentlemans Tailors. The company started with women wear store in 1982 and then gradually upgraded to men, children and interiors. The company was named NEXT in 1986. Now NEXT is a retailer based in UK. It offers its customers stylish and good quality products in different sectors like clothes, footwear and also home products. NEXT distributes its products to the customers by three main channels. These channels are the NEXT Retail, a chain of 500stores in the UK; and the Next Directory, which is a direct mail catalogue and transactional website with more than 2million customers and Next International, with more than 170 stores overseas. (www.nextplc.co.uk, 2009). According to Rugman Hodgetts (2002) International Business is defined as different forms of business transaction taking place across national borders for the purpose of satisfying the needs of individuals and organisations. International business has become more common in past few decades and it has helped many poor countries to grow and has allowed some developing countries to grow more. Across the border transactions have allowed the multi-national companies to reduce their production cost by going to the less developed countries where wage rate is lesser than their own countries. According to Griffin and Pustay (2006), International business consists of the business transactions which are made between two or more countries. For example NEXT buy material from a country and ship it to Srilanka or Bangladesh for stitching and then it goes to different countries to the retail stores of NEXT. Nexts mission is to be the first choice of its customers in the UK and overseas for people who want quality, style and affordable prices. In todays world fashion is changing very frequently so the retailers like Next have to offer its customers with the new products. They just want their customer satisfaction by providing them with the better quality and design with compared to their competitors. Next strategy is to target different group of customers who not only look for good quality but also the better prices. It offers its customers of different classes with affordable prices. According to Gerald Tellis (1989), price is a very important variable in forming a strategy for a business. The public policy makers main focus is to check if they customers are getting reasonable prices for the products they are buying or if they are getting value for money. Another point that he mentions about what the economists look at, if the higher-price products are of good quality or the retailers are charging their customers more than the product worth. Nexts strategy is, they always look for their customer satisfaction by providing them with the affordable prices and the modern style, so that they dont get disappointed. According to Antony Dnes (1995), franchising is a better way to expand your business. Better understanding of franchising could result in successful revival of a business. Franchising authority awards different franchises to the producers by offering them the lowest prices for specific quantity and quality. Next have 170 franchise stores in different countries and have different price ranges for different countries. Nexts Strategy: According to Nexts Annual report of 2009 (ir3.quartalflife.com), their main strategy is to achieve their financial objective which is the delivery of sustainable long term growth in their shareholders value. In 2009 their EPS have gone down, so it is very hard for them to cover up quickly so it is a bit challenging for Next. But they are confident that their long term objectives can be achieved by the strategies they have made after 2009. The board needs to manage its strategic risks to deliver the long term benefits to its stake holders. This strategy has just been planned on normal basis to know how to achieve their goals, but Next is facing challenges from its competitors for example Marks Spencer have opened a eco-factory in Srilanka which would help them reducing their cost, as the plant in that factory is solar so it would use less electricity. So Next has to come up with something special to cut down its cost of production and be able to achieve its financial objectives. Thei r main focus is to improve and develop their range of products in different parts of the world and keep its customers with in the fashion world. They have given their stores a demanding financial criteria and those stores must meet those figures before other investments are made. They are also trying to increase their customers who are shopping by using their Next Directory. They have also considered increasing their gross and net margins by better sourcing and controlling the cost of their products. Macro-environment According to Jobber D, (2007) macro environment consists of environmental issues that may affect business performances. This analysis takes into account those factors such as political, economic, social, technological, legal and environmental changes. For successful marketing strategy the company has to focus on these changes, bearing in mind that all these factors are interlinked with each other. Political/Legal The current economic condition faced by the world economy has forced the UK government to take serious notes on their legislations. For instance the recent decrease in VAT was a strategy to increase consumer spending, which was a positive implementation for the current economic condition, however, it did not affected a lot as the government failed to raise consumer lending by financial institutions. This failure of government approach affected NEXT as the peak season (Christmas Sale) went without high sales. Mr Wolfson (CEO) of Next plc has also mentioned the same situation in one of his interviews regarding government policy to tackle the economic conditions. (www.ft.com, 2009). The government latest intervention to kick start the economy was to cut down its interest rate to its all time low last month. The company can benefit from it as it has the opportunity to borrow the money at a very less interest rate. Moreover, NEXT has also got opportunity to attract more investment through share in the stock exchange, as savers will be more willing to invest their money instead of saving it on such a low rate. Economic Since the end of the year 2007 and early start 2008 the world economy was struck by reverse economic condition since 1990. With less consumer spending and global financial institutions collapsing it has resulted in Next share prices plunging. Current affairs show that Next need to survive the economic turbulence instead of its growth. However, companys branding and well established customer loyalty will help the company to survive in this downturn. Socio-culture Speaking of the socio-cultural future it should be mentioned that people retire earlier these days, as well as working shorter hours. Average working hours per week have decreased over the last 20 years. As a result many people have more spare time. This means they have time to compare prices in the High Street and the quality of goods and services from retailers. But as a result, they spend more time in the shops. Another issue these days is the Child Labour. Due to efficient media consumer are well informed and therefore this awareness challenges them to care. They dont want to buy just a product but they look beyond into the production process, labour used, etc. That leads to the issue of child labour in the clothing retail sector. There are companies who rely on it in order to be competitive in the domestic market. For example Marks Spencer had been accused of using child labour in Indonesia in 1999. Once the customers become aware of such practices, companies get into real trouble if they do not respond immediately. Consumers do look for best price but not at the cost of their ethics. NEXT has taken a good care of this and is never found involved in this. (www.hausarbeiten.com, 2009). Environment After looking at the current position and the threats from the different green organizations regarding global warming NEXT has taken many environmental friendly steps. Firstly its 98 stores recycle cardboard and plastic. Annually 11,935 tonnes of cardboard and polythene is recycled that is reused in making 12 million hangers. It has also decreased 7.1% carbon dioxide emission per 1000 parcel delivered/collected. (www.nextplc.co.uk, 2009) Technology Next is equipped with the latest technology in order to compete with their competitors. They have a team of 100 technologists to ensure that they sell safe products. Their technologists have developed specific manuals for the suppliers to ensure they comply with the law and safety and performance standards. (www.nextplc.co.uk, 2009) Micro-environment: According to Jobber (2007), micro-environment consists of the actors in the firms immediate environment that affects its capabilities to operate effectively in the chosen market. The main factors are customers, suppliers and competitors. Customers: According to Jobber (2007), customers are at the centre of the marketing philosophy and effort. So it is very important to satisfy your customers and understand their actual needs. In 2003, the main customer for NEXT were aged 25-44, but in 2008 that has changed to 20-34-years-old (www.nextplc.co.uk). Therefore, it seems to be that the NEXT is now attracting more young customers. The next always had good quality, good reputation and excellent customer service. The other is that they have also varied their product and introduced more style into it. Its online service is also becoming popular. Suppliers and Distributors: According to Jobber (2007), business is really influenced by the suppliers of a company. Next wants its suppliers to work with them closely, and they are committed to provide their customers with the products which are made in tidy and safe environment. Their main aims are to communicate their moral standards to the suppliers, and to promote good work places in the countries where their suppliers are, and to build capacity with the international chain of suppliers. Next by itself is a retailer so it reaches its customers by franchises and online web orders. It has also the Online Web directory, from where its customers can buy the products they want and also they have broachers and catalogues to sell their products to the end customers. Competitors: Next has two main competitors Debenhams and Marks and Spencer Group. Due to the recession many multi-nationals sales and their profit has gone down, and now they are making strategies to achieve their objectives. Because of the recession companys were unable to achieve their planned growth and targets. Because of economic downturn many companies have fallen to make cuts in their aspects of business. This could be a good short-term solution but it could cause problems for providing the customers with the quality and efficiency they want in the products. MSs net profit has gone down in 2009 if compared to 2008s figures. In 2008, its Net profit was  £821m which was recorded as  £506m and their earning per share has also dropped by 35.7p per share, as it was 43.6p in 2008 where as in 2009 it was recorded as 28.0p. But they are now trying to cover up their net profit of last year by eco-factory in Srilanka which would help them save their costs of production as it uses the solar power so it would use less electricity. They have planned,(Plan A) to response to the challenges and has set sustainability targets for 2012, and the commitments to achieve their goals. They have now started online international delivery to 80 countries, which could help them gain more customers all over the world as people would not have to visit the store or if they do not have any store nearby they can still get the MS products online (corporate.marksandspencer.com). Debenhams Annual report for 2009 shows that its net profit and EPS have grown as compared to 2008. Net profit was recorded as  £95.1m in 2009, whereas in 2008 it was  £77.1m and their EPS was noted as 10.0p in 2009 and in 2008 it was 9.0p per share. Their main strategy to boost up their business in the future is to have more space for their stores, have multi-channel expansion and balance sheet optimisation, which would help them. In this era of recession Debenhams have managed to make more profit then the previous year by their strategies. According to their report of 2009, market shares gains have been achieved on a regular basis for some two years. This shows that they have been planning for their business very well so that they can overcome any hurdle. (www.investis.com) If we see the financial report of Next for 2009, it is a bit disappointing for them as its Net Profit has gone down from  £353.9m to  £302.3 in 2008 to 2009 respectively. And the EPS has dropped by 12.7p per share as it was 168.7p in 2008 and in 2009 it decreased to 156.0p per share. (ir3.quartalflife.com) Globalization Localisation drivers: According to Ricky and Putsay (2006), international business has grown very quickly in the past ten years that many experts believe this era to be the era of globalization. According to him Globalization can be defined as the inexorable integration of markets, nation-states, and technologies. Globalization has now enabled the people to reach around the world more quickly and cheaply than ever before. The world is getting closer day-by-day in terms of business, now it is normal that a company would do business with companies in other countries. It has now led to the escalation of international trade in the economies of the world. Next has been very benefited by the globalization as it has been able to get the products stitched at very cheap price from the Asian countries. Globalization drivers Next understands the needs of its customers from different areas of the world and offer them with affordable prices. Next have very effective marketing channels like accessing the customers via internet, fashion magazines, TV etc. According to Simpson and Thorpe (1999), understanding differences between customers and difference in terms of product and service expectation is very important for international expansion. Next understands the need of its customers and provides its customers with the up-to-date fashion and it keeps them with the rapidly changing style with affordable prices. According to Ricky and Putsay (2006), importance of the foreign direct investment is also increasing because of globalization. It was just 2.4% in 1980 but by 2004 FDI equalled almost 22% of years GDP. It can help the business to grow internationally and earn more profit for the company. FDI can help the business in different ways. For example if Next goes to do business in Pakistan, the currency fluctuation would help Next, as in when it invest in Pakistan it would invest in Pakistani rupees and after getting the product and selling here in UK in pounds would definitely help to boost their sales profits. They would get cheap labour in Pakistan so they would save their production cost. As Pakistan is still a developing country so it would want multi-nationals to invest there, and they may provide Next with Tax Subsidiary for some time. Core Competence: According to Ricky and Putsay (2006), a core competence is a distinctive strength or advantage that is central to a firms operation. The companys main strength would be its core competence over its competitors. The company needs to identify the things they do well. Nexts core competence over its customers is it targets a wide range of people from different classes by offering the products and style they want with affordable prices. They also have been focussing on expanding their business in different parts of the world through franchising. It has also created its brand image overseas, which is very important for a company. According to Keller (1993), brand image is perception about a brand as reflected by the brand associations held in customer memory. Nexts brand image helps the business to grow much faster for example if a person has a good perception of Next in his mind, he would tell his friends and the people he knows to buy its products, which is a very efficient way of market ing. Next has an edge over its competitors that it is targeting the market which comprises of mainly the youngsters. As youngsters are more into fashion then anyone so it helps Next to get more customers then its competitors. As mentioned earlier, Next strategy is to provide its customers with the quality and style they want with affordable prices whereas if we look at the prices of its competitors, they target higher class. Recommendations: Next should try to bring more innovation in cloth manufacturing because by doing this they could attract more and more young customers to buy their products and also concentrate on the changing trends in the fashion world. Because of the economic crisis all over the world people do not want to spend more, so Next should do price cutting in their products and have promotional offers in the store to attract more people. Next needs to follow its competitors, as it is the era of global warming, so they should work on making the world eco-friendly by building plants like MS did, it would also reduce the production cost for them. To promote its brand Next could also target the markets where they have suppliers and the neighbouring countries for example if they are manufacturing there products in Bangladesh, they could target the neighbouring countries as there are a lot of emerging economies so it would help them grow their business in those economies. And if they promote their business in countries like Pakistan where they would not have a lot of competition as Next has a well-known brand name and the competitors would not be able to compete with their strategies and they could make much profit from these types of markets.

Developing Through the Life Span Essay -- Prenatal Health

Prenatal Development and the newborn: The focal point of this section was conception and the development of life before birth. I’ve read that every woman is born with a number of eggs that will later be released. Out of that number 1 in 5,000 eggs will essentially mature. Contrary to women, a man begins producing sperm at puberty, which gradually decreases along with age. During the actual conception, over 200 million sperms head towards the egg and try to break through. One is successful, the rest aren’t. The following section focused on prenatal development. Prenatal development is †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ I learned about Zygotes (fertilized egg’s), the Embryo (the zygote’s inner cells), and the fetus (the embryo after 9 weeks)is the . More specifically, the zygotes are the first cell organism’s that are produced. The embryo is a cell before it completes fertilization and becomes a fetus. And the fetus is an embryo at a more advanced stage of development. I’ve learned that by 6 month’s it is possible for the baby to survive if born prematurely. During pregnancy it is very important to pay c...

Commercialization of Education Essay

Bacteria, Virus, and Parasites — Years ago, waterborne diseases accounted for millions of deaths. Even today in underdeveloped countries, an estimated 25,000 people will die daily from waterborne disease. Effects of waterborne microorganisms can be immediate and devastating. Therefore, microorganisms are the first and most important consideration in making water acceptable for human consumption. Generally speaking, modern municipal supplies are relatively free from harmful organisms because of routine disinfection with chlorine or chloramines and frequent sampling. This does not mean municipal water is free of all bacteria. Those of us with private wells and small rural water systems have reason to be more concerned about the possibility of microorganism contamination from septic tanks, animal wastes, and other problems. There is a little community in California, where 4,000,000 gallons of urine hits the ground daily from dairy cows! Authorities say that at least 4000 cases of waterborne diseases are reported every year in the U.S. They also estimate that much of the temporary ills and everyday gastrointestinal disorders that go routinely unreported can be attributed to organisms found in our water supplies. INORGANIC IMPURITIES: Dirt and Sediment or Turbidity — Most waters contain some suspended particles which may consist of fine sand, clay, soil, and precipitated salts. Turbidity is unpleasant to look at, can be a source of food and lodging for bacteria, and can interfere with effective disinfection. Total Dissolved Solids — These substances are dissolved rock and other compounds from the earth. The entire list of them could fill this page. The presence and amount of total dissolved solids in water represents a point of controversy among those who promote water treatment products. Here are some facts about the consequences of higher levels of TDS in water: 1. High TDS results in undesirable taste which could be salty, bitter, or metallic. 2. High TDS water is less thirst quenching. 3. Some of the individual mineral salts that make up TDS pose a variety of health hazards. The most problematic are Nitrates, Sodium, Sulphates, Barium, Copper, and Fluoride. 4. The EPA Secondary Regulations advise a maximum level of 500mg/litter (500 parts per million-ppm) for TDS. Numerous water supplies exceed this level. When TDS levels exceed 1000mg/L it is generally considered unfit for human consumption. 5. High TDS interferes with the taste of foods and beverages, and makes them less desirable to consume. 6. High TDS make ice cubes cloudy, softer, and faster melting. 7. Minerals exist in water mostly as INORGANIC salts. In contrast, minerals having passed through a living system are known as ORGANIC minerals. They are combined with proteins and sugars. According to many nutritionists minerals are much easier to assimilate when they come from foods. Can you imagine going out to your garden for a cup of dirt to eat rather than a nice carrot; or drinking a whole bathtub of water for LESS calcium than that in an 8 ounce glass of milk? 8. Water with higher TDS is considered by some health advocates to have a poorer cleansing effect in the body than water with a low level of TDS. This is because water with low dissolved solids has a greater capacity of absorption than water with higher solids. Toxic Metals or Heavy Metals — Among the greatest threats to health are the presence of high levels of toxic metals in drinking water – Arsenic, Cadmium, Lead, Mercury, and Silver. Maximum limits for each are established by the EPA Primary Drinking Water Regulations. Other metals such as Chromium and Selenium, while essential trace elements in our diets, have limits imposed upon them when in water because the form in which they exist may pose a health hazard. Toxic metals are associated with nerve damage, birth defects, mental retardation, certain cancers, and increased susceptibility to disease. Asbestos — Asbestos exists as microscopic suspended mineral fibres in water. Its primary source is asbestos-cement pipe which was commonly used after World War II for city water supplies. It has been estimated that some 200,000 miles of this pipe is presently in use to transport our drinking water. Because these pipes are wearing, the deadly substance of asbestos is showing up with increasing frequency in drinking water. It has been linked with gastrointestinal cancer. Radioactivity — Even though trace amounts of radioactive elements can be found in almost all drinking water, levels that pose serious health hazards are fairly rare–for now. Radioactive wastes leach from mining operations into groundwater supplies. The greatest threat is posed by nuclear accidents, nuclear processing plants, and radioactive waste disposal sites. As containers containing these wastes deteriorate with time, the risk of contaminating our aquifers’ grows into a toxic time bomb. ORGANIC IMPURITIES: Tastes and Odours — If your water has a disagreeable taste or odour, chances are it is due to one or more of many organic substances ranging from decaying vegetation to algae; hydrocarbons to phenols. It could also be TDS and a host of other items. Pesticides and Herbicides — The increasing use of pesticides and herbicides in agriculture shows up in the water we drink. Rain and irrigation carry these deadly chemicals down into the groundwater as well as into surface waters — There are more than 100,000,000 people in the US who depend upon groundwater for sources whole or in part of their drinking water. As our reliance upon groundwater is escalating, so is its contamination. Our own household use of herbicide and pesticide substances also contributes to actual contamination. These chemicals can cause circulatory, respiratory and nerve disorders. Toxic Organic Chemicals — The most pressing and widespread water contamination problem is a result of the organi c chemicals created by industry. The American Chemical Society lists 4,039,907 distinct chemical compounds as of late 1977! This list only is comprised of chemicals reported since 1965. The list can grow by some 6,000 chemicals per week! 70,000 chemicals may still be in production in the US. As of December, 1978, 50 chemicals were being produced in greater quantities than 1,300,000,000 pounds per year in the US. 115,000 establishments are involved in the production and distribution of chemicals, with the business being worth $113,000,000,000 per year. According to the EPA, there are 77,000,000,000 pounds of hazardous waste being generated each year in the US. 90 percent of this is not disposed of properly. This would equal 19,192 pounds of hazardous waste disposed each year on every square mile of land and water surface in the US including Alaska and Hawaii!! There are 181,000 manmade lagoons at industrial and municipal sites in the US. At least 75 percent of these are unlined. Even the lined ones will leak according to the EPA. Some of these are within 1 mile of wells or water supplies. There is still a lack of information on the location of these sites, their condition, and containments. THIS IS A HORROR STORY OF THE MILLENNIUM. Chemicals end up in our drinking water from hundreds of different sources. There are hundreds of publications each year highlighting this problem. The effects of chronic long term exposure to these toxic organics, even in minute amounts, are extremely difficult to detect. Contaminated drinking water may look and taste perfectly normal. The users’ symptoms might include recurring headache, rash, or fatigue – all of which are hard to diagnose as being water related. The more serious consequences of drinking tainted water are higher cancer rates, birth defects, growth abnormalities, infertility, and nerve and organ damage. Some of these disorders may go unnoticed for decades!! Just how toxic these chemicals are may be illustrated by looking at two examples: TCE is a widely used chemical which routinely shows up in water supplies. Just two glassfuls of TCE can contaminate 27,000,000 gallons of drinking water! One pound of the pesticide, Endrin can contaminate 5,000,000,000 gallons of water. Chlorine — Trihalomethanes (THM’s) are formed when chlorine, used to disinfect water supplies, interacts with natural organic materials (e.g. by-products of decayed vegetation, algae, etc.). This creates toxic organic chemicals such as chloroform, and Bromodichloromethane. A further word about chlorine: Scientists at Colombia University found that women who drank chlorinated water ran a 44% greater risk of dying of cancer of the gastrointestinal or urinary tract than did women who drank non-chlorinated water! Chlorinated water has also been linked to high blood pressure and anaemia. Anaemia is caused by the deleterious effect of chlorine on red blood cells.

Tularemia Essays

Tularemia Essays Tularemia Essay Tularemia Essay Name: Course: Lecturer: Date: Tularemia Introduction Tularemia is a highly infectious disease, which affects humans and animals, caused by the bacterium francisella tularensis. The disease affects humans through various means such as skin contact with the infected animal, taking contaminated water, inhaling contaminated dust and aerosols, bites from ticks such as dog ticks, lone star ticks, and wood ticks, bites from deer flies, exposure in the laboratory, and as an act of bioterrorism (CDC). The bacterium is highly contagious, and a small number can cause the disease. terrorists can use it as a weapon, in form of inhalation, and this would increase the number of people susceptible to the disease. Pneumonic tularemia tends to be more severe. The disease causes severe pain and it could be fatal. Mosquitoes also carry the disease, and they can spread them to humans. The bacteria enter the human body through the skin, mouth, eyes, lungs, or throat. About one hundred animal species can carry the infection (Siderovski 12). This is in additi on to birds, arthropods, and fish, which can also carry the disease. Animals such as rabbits, hares, cats, muskrats, and rodents are more likely to get the infection. In cases of outbreak, the animals die in large numbers. There are no known cases of person-to-person infections. Farmers and hunters are at high risks of getting infections. Description and Classification Francisella tularensis is a gram-negative non-molatile bacterium with two biotypes, tularensis (biotype A) and palaearctica (biotype B). It is in capsule form with pleomorphic cells, which appear as short rods. It is an intracellular pathogen, able to live in ticks for a long time. the bacterium can survive in cool conditions for a long time but the cells are sensitive to heat. The bacterium can survive in water, as well as dry land. It also survives in soil, hay, decaying animal carcasses, and straw. Biotype A is limited to North America and it is highly virulent. Biotype B is found in North America, Europe, Asia and Americas, and it is less virulent. There are four known subspecies, and they include tularensis, holarctica, mediasiatica, and novicida. mediasiatica and novicida have low virulence subspecies tularensis is exclusive to north America, while subspecies holartica is present in Europe and north America (Suckow et al., 341). Signs and Symptoms The symptoms of the disease are varied, and they depend on the mode of infection, although all humans affected by the disease experience a high fever. A person infected with the disease normally experiences the symptoms after a period of 3-5 days, although the symptoms can range from 1-21 days. Other than fever, other symptoms include chills, headaches, muscle pain, eye irritation, sweating, diarrhea, dry coughs, weakness, and joint aches among others (CDC). A person with the infection develops a lesion at the site of entry of the bacteria. The sore is often red, with a ribbed rim and a punched-out center (Siderovski 36). The person develops inflammation of the lymph nodes in the affected area (Suckow et al 342). When the bacterium enters the bloodstream, it causes bacteremia, and this enables the infection to spread to other body organs such as kidneys, spleen, and liver (Siderovski 36). Animals infected with the disease often die, but they exhibit symptoms such as depression and an orexia (Suckow et al 342) Forms of Tularemia Some of the main forms of the disease include glandular, ocuglandular, oropharyngeal, ulceroglandular, and pneumonic. The bacteria in the ulceroglandular form of disease spreads to the lymph nodes at the point of entry. The ulceroglandular form of the disease is the most common. It occurs when the bacterium affects the person through the skin. A person with ulceroglandular develops a lesion, which develops into an ulcer. The ulcer heals after one week, and it is relatively painless (Oyston 921-930). The location of the ulcer in the body can help to determine the mode of transmission. Ulcers on the upper extremities on the body indicate that the person was in close contact with an infected animal. Ulcers on the lower extremities, abdomen or the back of the body indicate that the person got the infection from arthropods (Goddard 106). Glandular tularemia is similar to ulceroglandular, expect that the infected person does not develop an ulcer. The eye is a possible route of infection, and when this happens, the person develops ocuglandular tularemia. A person with this form of disease has swollen eyelids, and he or she develops conjunctivitis. Oropharyngeal tularemia develops when a person eats infected meat or drinks contaminated water (Oyston 921-930). It can also develop when a person puts infected fingers in the mouth (Siderovski 41). This form is also known as gastrointestinal tularemia. A person with this form of disease develops pharyngitis, swollen cervical lymph nodes, and ulcers. Diarrhea is a common symptom in this form of disease, and it ranges from mild and persistent diarrhea to acute diarrhea, which is often fatal. The infected person develops an ulceration of the bowel. He or she experiences nausea and vomiting. A person develops pneumonic or respiratory diarrhea through inhalation. A person with this form of the disease becomes delirious. He or she develops a non-productive cough, chest pain, and dyspenea. The bacteria replicates quickly once a person inhales it. The person might require assistance in breathing. Testing and Diagnosis Tularemia is a rare disease, and doctors find it hard to diagnose the disease. This is because the disease symptoms resemble symptoms of other diseases. Doctors look for symptoms such as swelling lymph nodes and ulcers on the skin to make their diagnosis (Siderovski 48). The patient can help the doctor, by pointing out any chance of exposure with an infected animal. Physicians can identify the disease by examining secretions and biopsy specimen using gram stain or direct fluorescent antibody. Examination using the fluorescent antibodies is quick, and the physician gets the report after a few hours but it is not always possible to guarantee the accuracy of the results (Dennis et al 2763-2773). When testing for the disease, it is important to alert those working in the laboratory, so that they can take the correct preventive measures. There have been several cases of people getting infections because of laboratory exposure. The most efficient way of confirming the disease is by growing it in culture, although it is often difficult to do so. One can grow culture using sputum or pharyngeal washing. For a person with inhalation tularemia, the physician grows the culture from fasting gastric aspirates. The culture has to contain cysteine, and the physician places it in an environment rich in carbon dioxide. It takes about four to six days for the culture to grow (Hepburn Simpson 231-240) Prevention and Treatment People can minimize their chances of infection by adopting several measures such as not handling carcasses since one does not know whether the animal had the diseases, and using gloves when handling infected animals and carcasses. People should not take water if they are not sure of its safety. Contaminated water is one of the easiest ways of acquiring the disease. People who take wild meat should ensure that they cook it thoroughly. Tularemia often affects wild animals, and people should be careful when consuming such meat. People in endemic areas should use repellants to get rid of arthropods, and reduce their chances of infection. They should treat their clothes with repellants, as this will help them to avoid insect bites. Worry about terrorists using the bacterium as a possible weapon has compelled researchers to develop a vaccine. There have been several attempts at this, and the live vaccine strain (LVS) seems to have been the most successful. The vaccine is successful in prov iding protection against small doses of a virulent strain. Governments have not licensed the vaccine because of its reversion to virulence, variable immunogenicity, and mixed colony morphology (Oyston 921-930). The disease can be fatal in humans, if not treated. The mortality rate for untreated tularemia is 30%. Treating the disease reduces this rate to 1% (Goddard 106). Doctors use antibiotics to treat the disease in human beings. Doctors use antibiotics such as streptomycin, gentamicin, doxycycline, and ciprofloxacin to treat the disease (CDC). These are the most common antibiotics, although other antibiotics such as tetracycline and chloramphenicol are in use (Goddard 106). Treatment depends on the type of medication used and stage of the disease, though it takes 10-21 days. The use of antibiotics has increased the chances of the patients’ recovery, and most patients treated usually recover from their illness. : CDC. Tularemia. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2011. Web. 12 July 2012 Dennis, T. David et al. â€Å"Tularemia as a Biological Weapon.† The Journal of American Medical Association 285.21 (2001): 2763-2773 Goddard, Jerome. Infectious Diseases and Arthropods. New York, NY: Springer, 2008. Print Hepburn, J. Matthew and JH Simpson. Tularemia: Current Diagnosis and Treatment Options. 2008. Web. 12 July 2012 Oyston, C. F. Petra. â€Å"Francisella Tularensis: Unravelling the Secrets of an Intracellular Pathogen.† Journal of Medical Microbiology 57.8 (2008): 921-930. Print Siderovski, H. Susan. Tularemia. Infobase Publishing, 2006. Print Suckow, A, Mark et al. The Laboratory Rabbit, Guinea Pig, Hamster, and Other Rodents. Waltham, MA: Academic Press, 2012. Print

Newspaper Sections and Terms

Newspaper Sections and Terms Many people become interested in reading the newsaper as young adults. Students may be required to read the newspaper to search for current events or to research sources. The newspaper can be daunting for beginners. These terms and tips can help readers understand the parts of a newspaper and help them decide what information could be helpful when conducting research. Front Page The first page of a newspaper includes the title, all the publication information, the index, and the main stories that will capture the most attention. The major story of the day will be placed in the most prominent position and contain a large, bold-faced headline. The topic could be of a national scope or it could be a local story. Folio The folio includes the publication information and is often located under the name of the paper. This information includes the date, volume number, and price. News Article A news article is a report on an event that has taken place. Articles may include a byline, body text, photo, and caption. Typically, newspaper articles that appear closest to the front page or within the first section are those that editors consider to be the most important and relevant to their readers. Feature Articles Feature articles report about an issue, person, or event with added depth and more background details. Byline A byline appears at the beginning of an article and gives the writers name. Editor An editor decides what news will be included in each paper and determines where it will appear according to relevance or popularity. The editorial staff determines content policy and creates a collective voice or view. Editorials An editorial is an article written by the editorial staff from a specific perspective. The editorial will offer the newspapers view of an issue. Editorials should not be used as a main source of a research paper, because they are not objective reports. Editorial Cartoons Editorial cartoons have a long and fascinating history. They offer an opinion and convey a message about an important issue in an amusing, entertaining, or poignant visual depiction. Letters to the Editor These are letters sent from readers to a newspaper, usually in response to an article. They often include strong opinions about something the newspaper has published. Letters to the editor should not be used as objective sources for a research paper, but they could prove valuable as quotes to demonstrate a point of view. International News This section contains news about other countries. It may address relationships between two or more countries, political news, information about wars, droughts, disasters, or other events that impact the world in some way. Advertisements Obviously, an advertisement is a section that is purchased and designed for selling a product or idea. Some advertisements are obvious, but some can be mistaken for articles. All advertisements should be labeled, although that label might appear in small print. Business Section This section contains business profiles and news reports about the state of commerce. You can often find reports about new inventions, innovation, and advances in technology. Stock reports appear in the business section. This section could be a good resource for a research assignment. It will include statistics and profiles of people who have made an impact on the economy. Entertainment or Lifestyle The section names and traits will differ from paper to paper, but lifestyle sections typically offer interviews of popular people, interesting people, and people who make a difference in their communities. Other information concerns health, beauty, religion, hobbies, books, and authors.

Business decision making Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Business decision making - Essay Example In order to attain this aim, the paper will seek to attain the following objectives: HealthJuz is a naturally formulated juice drink that will be made in four different flavours including orange, guava, apple and pear. These different fruits will be blended naturally, extracted and made available to consumers in different parts of the UK. A fifth version will contain some important elements of extracts from plants that promote weight loss. This will be extracted naturally from products that will be gathered on organic farms in the UK and in nearby lands in Europe and transported to the UK within not more than 7 days. The products will be bottled on the fruit farms and they will exclude additives and preservatives. The products will be distributed to different outlets that will include small shops and supermarkets within 24 hours to 48 hours after extraction and bottling. This will aim at health-conscious consumers in the UK who want to avoid chemicals and other products that might be toxic and harmful to the human body. The targeted consumers will include the consumers of Greater London and some commercial hubs in South England. The geographic scope will include London and surrounding areas and communities. This will seek to target important persons particularly people who are health-conscious and people who might be concerned with their health and their livelihoods. Consumers are to be classified amongst those who are health conscious who form the existing market whilst there is an active and growing market for healthy products and health foods, there is a number of people who can be literally converted to consumers of healthy products. Hence, there is the need to identify two market segments: This implies that there is the need for Zenith Bottling to engage in some kind of conflict with the entities that control the existing market of

Buddhist Economics Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Buddhist Economics - Assignment Example tholics, Orthodox or Protestants have a lot in common, such as they agree with the standard of the New Testament, they own up to the Apostolic Creed and also assert the different institutions of the church. However a number of teachings such as the Gospel of Thomas, philips gospel and Gospel of Truth later came to be discovered at Nag Hammadi by an avenger. On the leadership, the Orthodox Christian group held the belief that leadership only belongs to a small group of persons whose authority could not be challenged in any given way whatsoever and the right to ordain such leader was a prerogative of the apostle. But the Gnostics rejected this theory and went ahead to call it the â€Å"faith of fools.’’ Resurrection then became a controversy where all Christians believed that only Christ or God hold that spiritual authority yet when questioned on who bears that authority presently, one Valentinus responds by saying that it is only the one that comes into direct contact with God that holds this authority. These historical sources all portray God as having been a malicious envier since He envied Adam having consumed   fruit from the tree of knowledge and their eyes being opened just as the serpent promised as described is eby    Gnostic. Clement, the author asserts that God is the ruler and master and should, therefore, be obeyed. He delegates these powers to rulers such as bishops, priests and deacons who must be equally respected and anyone who disobeys them deserves punishment of death! The Gnostics, on the other hand, do not like this idea as some of these leaders could be compromised or entangled by personal gains. Irenaes goes ahead to support this statement by even saying that there is only one true God and that it, therefore, means that there is only one true and one representative of God’s authority on earth- the bishop. Another newly revealed script gives words spoken by a womanly authority, giving the idea that God created both male and female while